Reproduction in Organisms, introduction, Mode Of Reproduction In them

Reproduction is the formation of new individual since life or organisms is limited in duration it has developed certain mechanism by which it can reproduce themselves in order to continue the permutation of the the spice and also to multiply in number Reproduction is one of the ubiquitous miracle of life. Evolution is linked to Reproduction, because the ceaseless replacement of ageing predecessor with new life gives animal the means to respond and evolve in changing environment as the earth itself has changed over the ages. It is also any process by which a parental cell or organism produce offspring among eukaryots, asexual Modes include, binary fission, budding, prokaryotic fission. Viruses do not reproduce themselves, host organisms execute their replication cycle.

MODE OF REPRODUCTION
the following are the principal method of Reproduction Asexual Reproduction, sexual Reproduction and vegetative propagation. There are also special modes of Reproduction, in plant Aproxixis, Apospory And polyembroyony.

1) Asexual Reproduction : is the Reproduction of individuals without gametes, that is eggs or sperm. It includes anumber of distinct process without involving sex or a second parent. The offspring produced by Asexual Reproduction of an individual all have the same genotype and are called clones.

Asexual Reproduction appears in bacteria, protists, in many invertebrates phyla such as cindarians bryozoans, annelides, echinoderms and hemichordates. In animal phyla in which Asexual Reproduction occurs most members employ sexual Reproduction as well. In these group, Asexual Reproduction ensure rapid increase in numbers when differentiation of the organisms has not advanced to the point of forming gametes. ASEXUAL Reproduction take place by means of Asexual Reproduction units, called sporses, produced by the mother plant and by fission (by the division of the mother cell in the case of unicellular plants).

BASIC FORM OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION : fission (binary and multiple fission)  budding, gemulation and fragmentation.

BINARY FISSION, is common among bacteria and protozoa. In binary fission the body of the parent divides by mitotic cell division into two approximately equal parts each of which grows into and individual similar to the parent. It may be lengthwise as in flagellate protozoa, or transverse, as in ciliate protozoa. In multiple fission, the nucleus divides repeatedly before division of the cytoplasm, giving rise to many daughter cells simultaneously. Example of binary fission occurs in Euglena

SPORE FORMATION
in Asexual production is called sporogony is a form of multiple fission that is common among some parasitic protozoa, example is a malarial parasite. Ciliate motile spores are called zoospores produced by many algae and fungi.

BUDDING
this is an unequal division of the organisms where the new individual arises as an outgrowth (bud)  from the parent, developes organ like those of the parent, and leads to the formation of a colony. Budding occurs in several animal phyla and is especially prominent in cindarians.

Gemulation
Is the formation of new individual from an aggregation of cell surrounded by a resistance capsule, called a gemmule. In many fresh water spomgesgemmule develop in the fall and survive the winter in the dried or frozen body of the parent. In the spring, the enclosed cell becomes active, emerges from the capsule and grows into new sponge.

FRAGMENTATION
a multicellular animal breaks into two of more parts with each fragments capable of becoming a complete individual. Many invertebrate can reproduce assexually by simply breaking into two and regenerating the missing part of the fragments.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
sexual reproduction is the production of offspring framed by Union of gametes from two genetically different parents.
 The offspring will thus have a new genotype different from either parent.
 The individuals sharing parenthood are characteristically of different sexes, male and female (there are expectation among sexually reproducing organisms such as bacteria and some protozoa in which sexes are lacking) the distinction between male and female is based not on any difference in parental sizes or appearance, but on the size and mobility of the gamets (sex cells) they produce the ovum (egg) is produced by the female ova are large because of stored yolk to sustain early development, the ova is also motile and produced in relatively small numbers.

SPERMATOZOON (sperm)  is produced by male sperm are small, motile, and produced in enormous numbers, each is a striples-down package of highly condensed genetic materials designed for the single mission of finding and fertilizing the Egg.

MEIOSIS
is another crucial event that distinguishes Sexual from Asexual reproduction. Meiosis is distinctive type of gamete-producing nuclear division. Meiosis differs from ordinary cell division (mitosis) is being double division. The chromosomes split once, but the cell divides twice, produce four cells, each with half the original number of chromosomes (the haploid numbers). Meiosis is followed by fertilization in which two haploid gamets are combined to restore the normal (diploid) chromosomal number of the species. The new cell (zygote, which now begins to divide by mitosis) has equal numbers of chromosomes from each parent and accordingly is different from each. It is a unique individual bearing a recombination is the great strength of Sexual reproduction that keeps feeding new genotypes into the population.

Many protozoans reproduce both sexually and assexually when Sexual reproduction does occur, it may or may not involve male or female gametes. Sometimes two mature Sexual parents merely join together to exchange nuclear material or cytoplasm (conjugation)  sexes cannot be distinguished in these cases. The male-female distinction is more clearly evident in the metazoans. Organs that produce germ cells are know as gonads. The gonads that produce sperm is called testis and that which forms the eggs, the ovary the gonads represent the primary sex organ the only sex organ found in certain group of animals. Most metazoans however, have various accessory sex organ (such as penis, vagina, oviducts and uterus) transfer and receive sex cells. In the primary sex organ the sex cell undergo many complicated changes during their development

BIAPARENTAL REPRODUCTION 
biaparental (bisexual)  reproduction is the common method of Sexual reproduction with which we are familiar. Involving Separate and distinct male and female individual. Each has its own reproductive system and produces only one kind of sex cell, SPERMATOZOON or ovum but never both. Nearly all vertebrates and many invertebrate have separate sexes and such conditions is called dioecious.

Introduction To Animal Science And The importance In Research

Taxonomy the branch of biology that names and classifies species has regrouped living things based on comparisms of DNA sequence from different styles species into three domains.

These are bacteria Archea and eukarya.
Domain bacteria and Archea are all prokaryotic single celled microscopic organisms.

DOMAIN EUKARYA — are organisms with eukaryotic cells. There are several Kingdom in this domain these include :

KINGDOM PROSTISTA — sometimes recorded as multiple Kingdoms. They are unicellular eukaryotes such as protozones (eg amoeba sp)

KINGDOM FUNGI — these are defined by their nutritional mode eg. Mushrooms which absorb nutrients from their surroundings. Some decompose dead organisms and organic wastes.

KINGDOM PLANTAE — these are multicellular eukaryotes that carry out photosynthesis eg grasses.

Kingdom Animalia— these are multicellular eukaryotes that ingest other organisms, that is they eat and digest other organisms eg man.

Animals belong to the kingdom Animalia and therefore are living things that are not planet generally capable of voluntary motion, sensation, etc.

Science is described as a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of fact or truth systematically arranged and showing the operating of general laws.

WHAT IS ANIMAL SCIENCE 
animal science is described as "studying the biology of animal that are under the control of mankind" it constitute a branch of agriculture that provide basic information in the science and art of raising certain species of domesticated and non-domesticated animals for human food. Animals science is the application of experimental investigation, cutting edge technology and other scientific principles for the advancement of efficient and environmentally friendly animal agriculture and improved food quality and safety.

Animal production is one of the major sector in Nigeria agriculture and contributes substantially to the economy of the country. Animal science covers most aspects of animal production and animal products. This include all husbandry facets and livestock species (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, ostriches and horses) and the products derived from them (meat, milk and diary products, wool, mohair, eggs, skin and leather and feathers) as well as relevant aspects of aquatic (fish, etc)  and wildlife species. Animal science deals mainly with the three basic disciplines, namely breeding, physiology and nutrition, but also aspects of animal product science
 e.g meat, diary, wool, etc.

THE ANIMAL SCIENTIST 
animal scientist have careers in management and production vreterinary medicine, food processing and marketing, animal biotechnology, zoo and wildlife management, the pharmaceutical and feed industries, teaching, extension education and research. Those positions require skills in disciplines such as nutrition, genetics require skills in disciplines such as nutrition, genetics, physiology, environmental and waste management, meat and science and grOwth biology,. Animal health feeds and forage/browse utilization, engineering, business management /marketing and salesmanship.

Other skills of critical importance are computer proficiency, writing and oral cominication, problem solving and ability to build effective interpersonal relationship because of diversity among field of specialization. Students in the animal sciences also take courses in natural resources and environmental management, bioengineering, anatomy and reproductive biology, biochemistry and biophysics, chemistry, environmental biochemistry, food science and human nutrition, genetics, tropical plant and soil science, information and computer sciences, microbiology, oceanography, physiology, and zoology.

If you want to work with animal and benefit your community, then you may want to consider a rewarding career in one of the Many disciplines offered in the animal sciences the challenge to meet the future Projections of energy shortages, population growth, urbanization, and environmental conversation necessitates a continuing and increased need for highly trained professionals in animal sciences.
Training in animal science is Highly recommended if you are considering working in agriculture as a researcher, extension personal, a producer, a teacher or if you are interested in any of the many career options in agribusiness. Students also receive training in both basic and agricultural sciences. A major in animal science offers a path to a highly rewarding and challenging vocations. Animal science will ensure a stimulation and challenging career for a person whose interest lies in science, focused on dynamics of livestock production.

THE IMPORTANCE OF ANIMAL IN RESEARCH 
research involving laboratory animals is necessary to ensure an enhanced human and animal health and the production of the environment. In the absence of human data. Research of detecting important toxic properties of chemical substance and for estimating risk of human and environmental health.

Research animal must be used in a responsible manner. Scientifically - valid research designed to reduce refine or replace the need for laboratory animals is encouraged.
Research involving laboratory animal is important to people and to our quality of life. In the past century. Most inhabitants of this planet have experienced an unprecedented rise in living standard, life expectancy and personal opportunity in large part due to many ways of chemical have been put work for us. For example, drugs whose effect range from curing previously fatal bacterial infections, reducing the impact of AIDS, minimizing heart disease, decreasing aged related wrinkles, to reducing hair loss really widely available today. The many benefits of the diverse uses of our natural resources are an outcome of careful scientific research and of using chemicals in an appropriate and safe manner. Toxicologist, the scientists who help determine the limit for safe use of material, use modern technological research methods including test on animal to protect human and animal health and the environment.

CAREERS IN ANIMAL SCIENCE ANIMAL CARE AND WELFARE 

you will receive training pertaining to the current issues of animal welfare as they relate to production and husbandry. Employment opportunities exist with human societies animal shelter, and Allied veterinary groups animal. Animal health -  you will learn about diseases problems of livestock, poultry and compassion animals and their economic significance, causes public health Implications and control. Employment opportunities exist in areas such as veterinary medicine, veterinary technology and in various pharmaceutical industries.

ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
You will learn the principles, theories and practices involved in the production of beef and diary cattle, swine, poultry, sheep, goats,horses, and aquatic animals.

Business - you will receive a background in economics and agricultural practices that are useful for agricultural loans commodity trading and agricultural businesses

Microbiology and micro organisms using of physical method in controlling it

1) Heat: heat treatment is a simple, inexpensive and lethal. It is the best method if the material being treated is not damaged by heat. Heat penetrates to kill micro organisms throughout the object.

A) Dry heat : it Sterlizes by denaturing protein in the laboratory, used to Sterlizes liquids and material easily charred. Used in food canning.

B) Moist heat : it Sterlizes by denaturing protein in the laboratory, used to sterilize liquids and materials easily charred. Used in food canning

C) Pasteurization : kills certain microorganisms by denaturing the protein. Eliminates pathogens and slows spoilage of milk and certain dairy products, wine, beer (canned evaporated or condensed milk is sterilized).

2) LOW temperature (cold) : Refrigerating and freezing can be used to control microbial growth and reproduction. It slows down chemical reaction. It preserves perishable Materials, including food and microorganisms.

3) Filtration : microorganisms can be efficiently removed by Filtration with either depth filter or membrane filter. This method physically removes cellular microorganisms. Air also can be sterilized by Filtration in the laboratory used to preserve certain beverages.

4) Radiation : some form of electromagnetic radiation kill living things, including microorganisms. The types of radiation that kill bacteria directly are all of shorter wavelength than visible light they are ultraviolet (UV)  light (Radiation with wavelength of 10 to 400nm) and ionization radiation (with a wavelength extending to about 0.01nm).

UV light sterilizes by damaging DNA in the laboratory used to sterilize surfaces

Two forms of ionizing radiation are x-rays and gamma rays. They sterilize by stripping electrons from atoms. Used to sterilize plastic equipment and surface of fresh fruits and vegetables.

Drying : drying (removal of water)  can be accomplished through evaporation is almost never used in the laboratory because it causes chemical changes, but it is widely used in the food industry. Lyophilization, or conversation from solid to gaseous state). This method stops microbial growth and stops most chemical reactions.

In the laboratory used to preserve cultures, proteins, blood.

CHEMICAL CONTROL ON MICROORGANISMS

physical agent are generally used to sterilize objects. Chemical on the other hand, are more often employed in disinfection and antisepsis. The proper use of chemicals agents is essential to laboratory and hospital safety. Chemical also are employed to prevent microbial growth in food and certain chemical are used to treat infectious diseases.

1) PHENOLS : kills most microorganisms by denaturing the proteins. It is used as a germicide.

2) PHENOLIC: kill most microorganisms by denaturing proteins and disrupt plasma membrane. It is used as disinfectants and antiseptics.

3) ALCOHOLS: are the most widely used disinfectants and antiseptics. They are bacterialdal and fungicadal but not sypoticidal, some liquid-containing viruses are also destroyed. The two most popular alcohol germicide are ethanol and isopropanol. Denatures protein and disrupts plasma membrane disinfects surface including skin and thermometers.

4) HALOGENS : kills microorganisms. Oxidizes vital biochemicals. It is used to disinfects surface including skin and water.

5) Hydrogen Peroxide : kills many microorganisms by oxidizing vital biochemicals. It is a mild skin disinfectant.

6) SURFACTANTS (soap and detergent) wash away microorganisms by physically removing them disinfects surface, including, skin bench tops.

7) HEAVY METALS (such as mercury, silver, arsenic, zinc and copper)  kills microorganisms. Heavy metals combine with protein to inactivate the microorganisms used as skin disinfectants.

8) Quanternary Ammonium Compounds (SALT) are used detergent that have antimicrobial activities are effective disinfectants. They disrupt membrane and are widely used as sterilizing agents.

9) ALDEHYDES: both of commonly used aldehydes formaldehydes and glutaraldehydes are high reactive molecules that combine with nucleic acids and protein and inactivate them. They are sporicidal and can be used as chemical sterilants. They are used to preserve tissues, prepare vaccines and sterilize surgical instruments.

10) ETHYLENE OXIDE : many heat-sensitivs items such as machine components structure and cathers are Sterlized with Ethylene oxide Gass it is both microbicidal and sporicidal and kills by combining with cell protein.

Chemotherapeutic Agent : the chemicals discussed so far are appropriate for use either on inanimate object or external host tissues. Chemotherapeutic agents are chemicals that can be used internally because they have selective toxicity that is they target the microbes and do relative little if any harm to the host. Most Chemotherapeutic agents are affective in controlling the growth of bacteria. There are many synthetic antibiotics for treating diseases caused by fungal, protists and viruses.

HOW MICROORGANISMS ARE STUDIED

the most important tool in studying microorganisms is the microscope. Microscope began in the century with Anthony Van Leeuwenhock and his little hand-held Microscope. He is regarded as the "FATHER OF MICROBIOLOGY". microscope crest a visible, detailed images of object that are different types of microscope but all of them depend on three factors I.E. magnification, contract and resolution to produce a clear image.

MAGNIFICATION : the primary function of a microscope is magnification, that is enlargement of image, this is done by using a convex lens (thicker in the center Than the edge). By refraction, it bends paravel rays of light from an object so that they meet at a single point, the focal point An enlarged image of the objects from behind focal point.

CONTRAST : this refers to a different in light intensity. It allows on to distinguish on part of an image from its surrounding. The image we see in a microscope is created by the light that is transmitted through the specimen (an object viewed under microscope).

RESOLUTION : Good resolution means you can distinguish two points in an image that are very close to one another. If resolution is poor, the two point merge and look like one another.

Microbiologist use many types of micro scopes to do their work they included both compound light Microscope and electron Microscopes.

LIGHT MICROSCOPE
a light microscope use a visible light as a source of illumination. A compound light microscope has two lens system and object lens and ocular lens. Another series of lenses called the condenser directs light through the specimen. The objective lens forms an image of the specimen in the tube of the microscope. The ocular lens magnifies and projects the image to the eye. Compound light microscope typically are provided with several objectives lenses : low power (10X),high power (40X), and oil immersion(100x)

Carbohydrate, monosaccharides, diasaccharides, Maltose, polysaccharides what they Are Made Up.

CARBOHYDRATE
there are three main type of carbohydrate namely the monosaccharides or simple sugars. The diasaccharides or double sugar and polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose shows how they related.
In everyday usage "sugar" means household sugar used to sweeten drinks and foods. This is sucrose which is a diasaccharides. Chemist and biologist use the term "sugar more widely to include all monosaccharides, diasaccharides and other carbohydrate which like sucrose, are sweet-tasting and soluble in water.
carbohydrate are made up of the elements such as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have the general formula Cx(H20)y; x and y can have any value, but there are always twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms in a carbohydrate molecule.

MONOSACCHARIDES
general formula CH2O. Glucose and fructose are example of monosaccharides (monos, single and sacharon means sugar). Both have same formula; C6H12O6 but the atoms are arranged differently in their respective molecules. Monosaccharides are common in nature. They are found in honey and many different succulent fruits and give their sweet taste. Glucose is sometimes called blood sugar, for it is the form in which carbohydrate are carried in blood vertebrates.
Simple sugar taste sweet (though less so than diasaccharides) are soluble in water, and diffuse quickly. Most cell use glucose in respiration and it is commonest product of photosynthesis

DIASACCHARIDES
(general formula C12H22011). In the common diasaccharides, each molecule is formed by condensation of two monosaccharides molecule examples of diasaccharides include the following

SUCROSE (cane sugar or household sugar) is the form in which carbohydrate are generally transported in flowering plant. It is extracted commercially from sugar cane and sugar beet. A sucrose with one fructose molecule
Lactose (milk sugar) is present in the milk of mammals, including human beings and  cows.

MALTOSE is an intermediate product in the break down of starch to monosaccharides. For example it is formed in germinating seeds, and during mammalian digestion.
Diasaccharides are colourless, crystalline sub-stances. They are about three times more soluble than monosaccharides, but diffuse more slowly. They are easily hydrolyzed to simple sugars.

Polysaccharides
(general formula: Cn(H20)n¯¹ where n is usually between 200 and 500)
Polysaccharides (Gk: poly many) molecules are much lager than those of sugars because each is formed by the condensation of several hundred monosaccharide molecule. Polysaccharides are generally insoluble in water and are therefore the form in which plant and animals store carbohydrate. Biologically important Polysaccharides include the following: STARCH is found as granules in the cell of most plant organ like yam, cassava, grain and many seeds.
Glycogen, or animal starch is the form in which animals and fungi store carbohydrate. Both starch and Glycogen can be readily hydrolysed to glucose (the simple sugar unit from which each is made) as the plant or animal needs them.
CELLULOSE is the basic material of plant cell walls.
CHITIN is the basic material of insect exoskeletons.
Cellulose and chitin are chemically inactive they do not react with most other substances) this is a useful property in a protective covering.

LIPIDS (lipos,fat) is the collective name for fat and oils like carbohydrate molecules, lipids molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. However, in them the proportion of oxygen is much lower typical formulae are C57H104O (palm oil) and C57H110O6 (beef fat). A lipid is formed when a glycerol molecule combines with fatty acid molecules, as shown
Fat and oil are insoluble In water but form emulsion in the presence of certain substances, called emulsifying agents. Washing-up lipid and bile salts are example of these. An emulsion consist of very tiny droplets of one liquid suspended in another. The droplet remain suspended because they are too small to settle.

Classification The Range Of Living Things Around The World

We emphaseised the features which living things have in common. For example that all are made of cells and carry out life processes. Here and in Appendix I we concentrate on differences. The Appendix introduces you to the remarkable range which make up the living world.

THE NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION
biologist have so far studied and named over 1500000 different types of organisms and it is likely that several times that number remains to be studied and named. It would be impossible to deal with such large numbers unless we classified organism in some ways.

To classify means to arrange or organize things into group its something we do all the time. For example, in a school library we usually arrange the books according to subject. We might group all the regional geography books together and if there are many break them down further into those above continent's and countries.

When biologist classify living things they place them in a series of group according to their similarities and differences. This classification is based on careful and detailed study of each type of organisim
The species is the basic unit of biological classification. For example, all dogs are placed in the species canis familiaris, and all lions in the specie Pantera leo.

A specie is a group of individual which can be breed together to produce fertile offspring.
Species are arranged in a series of increasingly larger group, depending on the number and nature of features their members share species with many features in common are placed in same genus (plural: genera). Genera with common features are placed in the same family, and so on. The kingdom is the largest group used in biological classification. As we move from genus to Kingdom, each group include a larger number of species, but these have a fewer features in common.

A clarification and classification of living things based on comon features is useful in several ways. For example if you are told that an animal is a mammal, you already know quite a lot about it you know that is has all the features common mammal has outlined on page 441. It also have all the features common to vertebrates (page 409) and to animal as a whole (page5).

We sometimes find considerable variety within a species. For example, all the animal in on earth are varieties of dog. Though they look so different, they are still placed in the same species because they can breed together to produce fertile offspring.

Horse and donkeys can also breed together, but the offspring they produce, called a mule, is infertile (cannot give rise to offspring). Horses(Equus caballus) and donkeys (Equus asinus) are therefore classified as separate species
.
THE BINOMIAL SYSTEM
species are named by the binomial system which was devised by the Swedish biologist linnaeus (1707-1798).he gave every species two names ; a generic name and a specific name. The generic name is common to all animal species in a genus. For example Equus caballus (the horse), Equus asinus (the donkey), Equus burchelli (the common zebra), are different species belonging to the same genus

Note that generic name is always written fist and start with a capital letter. When we refer to several species belonging to the same genus, we need only write the generic name in full on the first occasion e.g Equus caballus, E. Asinus and E. Burchelli.

The characteristic features of the main animal and plant groups and of the fungi, bacteria and viruses are set out in appendix 1 page 402. We recommend that you to look through the appendix to get in an idea of the variety of life on earth, but do not attempt to study it in detail at this stage. You will however, find it useful to refer to this appendix each time an animal, or plant species, or group, with which your are unfamiliar, is mentioned.

Today there is generally agreement among biology as to how orgsnisims should be classified. How many Kingdom should we have; two, five or more? We shall return to this question in chapter 29. That is it

Biology and living things around human and animal life that exit around the world

Biology is the pure science which we study about living things. Biologist study all forms of life including ourselves as human beings, other animals, plant and microscopic living thing such as bacteria too small to see with the ordinary human eye.

Biology is such a useful tool with many applications in the morden world. For example it helps us to understand how our body system works both in human and plants and and it also helps us understand how our body system works.

It also investigate the cause of human and plant diseases, and ways to prevent them. This is why student training for careers in medicine or agriculture are required to study Biology. Doctors, nurses, pharmacist, agriculturalist and veterinary surgeons for example all need a sound knowledge of Biology to survive.

Biologist also study the relationship between man and plant. It is important that they should, because how we will live in the future depends on how we use our natural environment today.

By our natural environment we mean the plant, animal, microbes, soil, minerals, air and water inside and around the environment.

We depend on the environment for our food and water and other essential materials, yet, all too often, we damage or destroy it. Especially in morden times man has ruined good farmland. Cut down valuables forest, brought about extinction of plant and animal species and polluted the air, seas, Rivers, and lakes.
We often cause such damage and destruction through ignorance of full effect of our action. Much of it need not to happen, given the knowledge and goodwill.

BIOLOGY AS AN INQUIRY

Biology is defined a a pure science which studies living things why do we call Biology a science and what does the term science mean to answer these questions we shall first define science in two ways.

1.  A science is an organised body of knowledge which describes and attempts to explain some parts of the natural world. The classification of living things (appendix) is an example of what is meant by knowledge being organized.

2 science is also about finding out things. Scientists are really more interested in what we do not know than in what is already known. their cheif interest is to add to our knowledge and to depeen our words, the prime purpose of science is research.

Of course other people as well as scientist are interested in the world around them what makes the scientific approach different from the rest are the research method used. These include observation experiment and measurement.

OBSERVATION
to find out what the cell in a green leaf are like you will place some under a microscope and look at them this is am example of research by observation. Because Biologist are often intrested in the structure and behaviour of organisin, observation is common in biological observation it often includes drawing as well as written description.

EXPERIMENT
at times in your Biology course you will use experiment to find the answers to your questions. We shall defer our discussion of scientific experiment until the end of the course, so that you can have first hand experience of the types of experiment we shall be discussing.

1) Using a electron microscope

MEASUREMENT
many of the questions scientist ask can only be answered by measuring or counting. For example, are the yield from this farm increased by using fertilizer, and if so by how much?, or what is the effect of excersice on this person's heart beat?.

A scientist wants result he can relay on so he tries to measure as accurately as he can. He may also cheak his experiment by repeating them a number of times, to find if they are consistent. Several of the experiment you will attempt will be quantitative experiments ; that is experiment which depend on measuring or counting something your course will provide experience of both aspect of Biology ; namely Biology encouraged throughout to conduct your own investigation by observation and experiment and to think and behave like a scientist.

The chemical constituents of living things in biological environment today

One of the difference between living organism and non living one is that their chemical composition.
A living organisim consist largely of compound of carbon, plus water. (about 55% to 65% of most animal, and 90% or more of most plant is water.)
The carbon compound of which organisim are made are called organic compounds. Organic molecules are larger and more complex in structure than most inorganic molecules. This is partly because when carbon atoms combine they tend to form either long chain or ring

Inorganic molecules are those which makes up the non-living world for example, Water, the gas of the air, and the mineral in rocks.
In addition to carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are common constituents of organic compounds, sometimes other elements are present. These include phosphorus, sulphur and certain metals such as iron and magnesium.

Organisms also contain small amount of minerals salt. A mineral salt is an organic substance usually found in rocks, the soil or the sea sodium chloride (common salt) is an example. The mineral salt of plant are discussed in Biology very well and those of animal too
Most of organic compound found in living things belonging to on of three main group namely the carbohydrates (starches and sugar) lipids (fats and oil) and proteins.

CHEMICAL TERMS EXPLAINED

the following definition refers to how the terms are used in this book only more comprehensive definition can be found in chemical textbooks.
A chemical substance is either an element or a compound. There are just over 100 element but many thousands of compounds.

An element is a substance which cannot be split into simpler substance by chemical means carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are simple examples.
A compound is a substance made of two or more elements Combined chemically. It's properties are different from those of it element a compound can be split into simpler substance by chemical means. water, carbon dioxide and glucose are examples of compounds.

An atom is the smallest partixls particle of an element which can take part in chemical reaction. All compounds can take part in a chemical reaction. All compounds and some element Eg oxygen hydrogen exist as two or more atoms combined together. These groups of atom are called molecules.

In chemical reaction, compound and/or elements react with each other to form one or more new substance for example when charcoal which is a form of carbon is burnt in air the carbon combines with oxygen in the air to form the gas carbon dioxide chemists represent each element by a symbol for example

C= carbon
H= hydrogen
O= oxygen
Na = sodium
Cl= chlorine

The symbol are used in chemical formulas and chemical equations.
A chemical formula represent one molecule of an element or compund it tells us the type and number of atoms in the molecule. For Example CO² means that carbon dioxide molecules consists of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen.
C6H12O6 means that a glucose molecule consist of six atoms of carbon twelve atoms of hydrogen and six atoms of oxygen
A chemical equation represent a chemical reaction. For example

I) C +          02----->       CO2
Carbon       oxygen       carbon dioxide
Ii)  6co²   + 6H2O----> C6H12O6 + 6O2

this tells us that six molecule of carbon dioxide react with six molecule of water to form one molecule of glucose and six molecule of oxygen
The substance which react are shown to the left of the arrow, and the new substance produced, to the right. The left- and right hand sides must balance. For example, if there are six carbon atoms on the left side of the equation, there must be a total of six carbon atoms on the right hand side.

Macromolecules
Some organic molecules consist of many smaller molecules combined to form one larger molecules. Examples are polysaccharides and protein such molecules are described as Macromolecules. A Macromolecules in which all smaller molecules are similar and joined together in the same way is called polymer

MTN 0.0k Free Browsing Cheat For Tweakware VPN 2019

Hello friends, I bring to you yet another settings to enjoy MTN 0.0K cheat on Tweakware VPN . This is coming after I shared XP Psiphon settings . On the off chance that XP Psiphon refused to work for you, then Tweakware VPN will definitely work for you.

We should also not forget the fact that this cheat is not unlimited, as it's capped per day . It's not a bad one if you ask me, and also for the fact that we have been enjoying it for months now.
Let's quickly go straight to the full settings.

MTN 0.0k Free Browsing Cheat For Tweakware VPN 

1. An Android phone
2. MTN 3G or 4G sim without data
3. Tweakware VPN - download here

How To Configure Tweakware VPN For MTN Cheat

> First of all, download Tweakware VPN

> Install and open Tweakware app

> Tap on Settings > Custom Tweak > then set it like this:

Connection Mode: HTTP

Host Header: mtn1app.mtn.com

Proxy Host: 10.199.212.2

Proxy Port: 8080

Leave other settings as it was.

> Go back to the main page and select Free Server . And in

the second box below, select Custom

> Finally, tap on Connect. It will connect within 30

seconds.

Don't forget to share this post and leave a comment below.